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task of explaining, instead of overthrowing, the universal facts of mind, we must needs believe that the world, wise and ignorant, have not whistled to the wind in talking about freedom, choice, responsibility, and in constructing the frame-work of private, social and religious life upon them. In the above theory, there is the entire transformation of the very familiar facts of hourly life that seek our explanation. The language we apply to them is found to be all wrong. There is no proper guilt or punishment, virtue or reward. There is no law, as we use the word in social and ethical discussions; all is ultimately resolvable into physical force. The man indeed, like the brute, can be reached on two sides instead of one. He can be pushed, guided from behind, and, through the mirror of the mind, can be invited, influenced by things yet before him. As, by ingenious reflection, rays that do not directly fall upon the object are thrown, upon it, so forces not yet realized are flung by anticipation on the mind, and become present powers working vital results in the brain. To lay a command, therefore, as conscience does, and furnish, for its execution, no forces, promise no pleasures, threaten no pains, as the immediate results of obedience or disobedience, is, according to the above view, absurd, is to furnish the plan of a noble edifice, and provide no workmen to put it up. There is, on this theory, no other moral law than when I flourish a whip in the face of a restive ox, or apply it to his tough hide. The actions are essentially one; the first brings the anticipation of pain, and the second, actual pain.

In the passages quoted, there is an undersigned confession that the author can make nothing of the true moral phenomena of moral law, and has, therefore, put in their place a gross caricature, at war with the form and language of our daily life. We do treat the brute and the man very differently, and the more diversely, as we are the more intelligent.